The Essenes
The Essenes were a Jewish movement living in
various settlements throughout Palestine between the second century
b.c. and a.d. 66–70. They are not named in the NT, but it is possible
that *John the Baptist was acquainted with some of them living in the
Judean wilderness. The Essenes are known from ancient Greek and Latin
sources and likely also from the Hebrew
and Aramaic *Dead Sea Scrolls. These sources reveal overlapping but
distinct practices and beliefs within the Essene movement and
significant points of contact with the emerging Jesus movement.
1. Sources from Antiquity.
References
to sources in this article are conflated for convenience but with the
understanding that the Es- senes are portrayed and nuanced differently
in the various texts, which in turn were influenced by the particular
locations and interests of both authors and audiences (Jewish or
Roman) and their ac- quaintanceship with different kinds of Essenes
(cf. selective emphases in the four Gospel accounts). The external,
Greek and Latin sources are more focused in the external distinctives
such as celibacy and the community of goods while revealing little or
no knowledge of calendar, messianism and apocalypticism issues
addressed in the DSS. The external sources also betray an intrigue in
the more mundane details of body and dress for example, the wearing of
white robes, the avoidance of spitting, and specific procedures for
toileting (Josephus, J.W. 2.123, 129,147-149).
1.1. External,
Classical Sources: Philo, Pliny, Jo sephus. In addition to being
mentioned in Hippoly- tus, Dio Chrysostom, Hegesippus, Hippolytus, Por-
phyry, Solinum and Epiphanius, the Essenes are treated by a handful
of first-century a.d. writers. Philo, an Alexandrian Jewish
philosopher, wrote the oldest extant descriptions of the Essenes in That
Every Good Person Is Free (Prob. 75-91), Hypothetica (Hypoth. 11.1-18)
and On the Contemplative Life, por- traying the Essenes in light of his
own philosophic and ethical ideals.
For the Roman Pliny, the
Essenes were a curios- ity, a “throng of refugees” located near Engedi
and the “lake of Asphalt” and remarkable for having only palm trees for
company and for having “no women” and “no money” (Nat. 5.15.73).
A
Jewish historian writing for a Roman audi- ence, *Josephus effectively
conformed the Essenes to a Hellenistic ideal in his selective
descriptions found mainly in Jewish War (J.W. 2.119-161), Jewish Antiq-
uities (Ant. 18.18-22) and Life (Life 9-12).
1.2. Internal,
Sectarian Sources: Dead Sea Scrolls. Although aspects of the Yaḥad
(“commu- nity”) in the sectarian DSS have variously been identified with
the *Sadducees, Zealots, *Pharisees and even Judeo-Christians, the
Yaḥad most resembles the “Essenes” known from the classical sources.
Some,
but not all, from the Yaḥad settled at Qumran. For example, the
Damascus Document (CD) refers to “camps” comp0sed of married people and
children, while the descriptions of community life in the Rule of the
Community (1QS) suggest a male, celibate community.
2. Communities of Essenes.
2.1.
Multiple Groups and Locations. Numbered at more than four thousand
(Philo, Prob. 75; Jose- phus, Ant. 18.20), Essenes were variously
reported as living near the Dead Sea (Pliny, Nat. 5.15.73), avoid- ing
cities but living in villages (Philo, Prob. 76), living in many cities
and towns (Josephus, J.W. 2.124), and living in “camps” with a minimum
of ten members (CD-A XII, 22—XIII, 2; cf. 1QS VI, 1-8). Josephus knew of
Jerusalem’s “Gate of the Essenes” (J.W. 5.145).
2.2. Essenes
and the Early Jesus Movement. G. Brooke has noted that the branch of
educated, ur- ban Qumran Essenes originally from *Jerusalem in- sisted
on priestly purity, protected sacred space and practiced a “hardline”
legal interpretation. In con- trast, Jesus and his followers were lower
middle class, from small towns, and practiced an open *table fel-
lowship. Yet, similar conversational tensions may be found (see 3.2
below). For example, the sectarians were in dispute with a group that
they called the “Flattery-Seekers,” “Shoddy-Wall-Builders” or “White-
Washers” (CD-A I, 18-19; VIII, 12-13; CD-B XIX, 24-25), most likely the
Pharisees (cf. Mt 23:27-28).
2.3. Essenes and Outsiders. In
Matthew, “I have not come to bring peace, but a sword” (Mt 10:34) is in
tension with “All who take the sword will perish by the sword” (Mt
26:52; cf. Mk 14:43-52; Lk 22:47-53; Jn 18:2-12). The classical sources
present the Essenes as “servants of peace” (Josephus, J.W. 2.135), not
making weapons of war (Philo, Prob. 78), attending to strangers, and
providing them with clothing and other essentials (Josephus, J.W.
2.132). During initia- tion they swore both to “do no harm to anyone”
and to “hate the wicked” (Josephus, J.W. 2.139, 142). Yet, Essenes were
said to carry arms for protection against brigands (Josephus, J.W.
2.125), and a certain “John the Essene” presumably carried arms in his
role as commander (Josephus, J.W. 2.567; 3.11).
Jesus’ followers were told to love their enemies, blessing instead of cursing them (Mt 5:43-48; Lk 6:27-
36).
In the Rule of the Community of the Yaḥad the “children of light” were
to hate the “children of darkness” (1QS I, 9-10), cursing those
“foreordained to Belial” (1QS II, 4-9), while concealing their hatred
for the “Men of the Pit” until the day of vengeance (1QS IX, 17-23). In
the meantime, while they awaited the divinely initiated eschatological
*judgment (1QM; 1QpHab V, 3-5), they were not to return evil for evil,
but instead were to pursue others only for good (1QS X, 17-20).
The
Aramaic Genesis is presented as laying hands on the Egyptian king for
healing and as teaching Egyptians the knowledge of “goodness, wisdom,
and righteousness” (1QapGen ar XIX, 23-25; XX, 21-29; cf. Jesus healing
Israel’s ene- mies in Mt 8:5-13; 15:21-28).
3. Essene Practices and Beliefs.
3.1.
Initiation, Table Fellowship, Swearing of Oaths. The probationary
period for entry into the sect lasted between two and three years;
initiation involved testing of character and, at the end of vari- ous
stages, the transfer of property, the taking of oaths and
participation in pure meals and pure drink (Josephus, J.W.
2.137-138; cf. 1QS VI, 13-23). The Essenes practiced a closed table
fellowship; pre- sumably visitors or new probationers ate separately
(cf. table fellowship in Mk 2:16-17; 14:12-26). Swear- ing of oaths was
prohibited except upon admission to sect (Josephus, J.W. 2.135, 139;
Philo, Prob. 84; CD-A XV, 5-12; 1QS V, 8-11; cf. Mt 5:33-37; 23:16-22).
3.2.
Alternative Ways of Living as Priestly, Torah abiding Jews. Some have
suggested that the Ara- maicizing of the Hebrew “doers” (ʿosim) of the
inter- pretation of the Torah (CD-A IV, 8) may plausibly be the origin
of the term “Essenes.”
This group believed itself to be true
Israel, a true priesthood and acceptable sacrifice, inheritors of the
language of “planting,” “temple,” “remnant,” “corner- stone” and the
“chosen” (1QS VIII, 1-10a; cf. Jesus as cornerstone in Mk 12.1-11 and
discussion about true children of Abraham in Jn 8:39-42).
The
Damascus Document (CD-A X, 14—XI, 18) records Sabbath restrictions
against work in the field, carrying medicine or a baby, assisting an
ani- mal giving birth, and helping an animal fallen into a well. Humans
fallen into a well could not be helped with ladder, rope or tool (cf. Mt
12:11-12; Mk 2:2328). Sabbath rules recorded by Josephus pertained to
food and fire preparation and not defecating on the Sabbath (J.W.
2.147-149; cf. 1QM VII, 5-7). The Essene court, not the high priest’s
court, decided ver- dicts, including the death sentence for blasphemy
(Josephus, J.W. 2.143-145; cf. Mt 26.57-66; Mk 14.5364). Essenes were
known for interpreting dreams (Josephus, J.W. 2.112-113; Ant.
17.345-348) and reliably exercising prophetic gifts (Josephus, J.W.
2.159; cf. Mt 11:8-10; Lk 1:76; 2:36; 7:26-28).
Judas the Essene
is in the temple when he prophesies the death of Antigonus (Josephus,
J.W. 1.78-80; Ant. 13.310-314; cf. Lk 2:36-37). However, like Jesus, at
least some Essenes were openly critical of the *temple as it was
currently run and its priesthood
(CD-B XX, 22-23; 1QpHab I, 13;
cf. Mk 11:15-18). Alhough some sent offerings to the temple, they of-
fered up some type of sacrifice among themselves with special
practices for purification (Josephus, Ant. 18:18-19). Alternatively,
they may not have offered animal sacrifices at all (Philo, Prob. 75; cf.
1QS VIII, 9-10; IX, 4-5); the DSS attest morning and eve- ning prayers
as an alternative to sacrifices (4Q503; cf.Philo, Contempl.).
The
Hebrew Scriptures commanded washings for ritual impurities (Lev 14-17),
and John’s *baptism required confession and *repentance for moral
impurities (Mt 3:7-11). Essenes preceded their pure meal with cold-water
immersion and *prayers (Josephus, J.W. 2.129-131). These immersions
remedied ritual and moral impurity and were accompanied by repentance
(1QS V, 13-18; cf. Josephus, Ant. 18.19).
3.3. Marrying,
Nonmarrying and Widower Es senes. A practice of leaving one’s wife,
brothers, par- ents or children for the sake of the *kingdom of God was
known in Luke’s Gospel (Lk 18:29-30; cf. Mt19:29-30; Mk 10:29-30).
According
to Josephus, one order of Essenes disdained marriage but adopted
children (J.W. 2.120), while another order permitted marriage for the
purpose of procreation of children only, abstaining from intercourse
during pregnancy (J.W. 2.160-161; cf. Lk 14:25-26).
Philo notes
that “no Essene takes a wife”; however, the phrase “even if the older
men, however, happen to be childless” implies that some had children
(Hypoth. 11.13). There is no legislation on celibacy or marriage in the
Rule of the Community; however, the Damascus Document has rules for
women and children (CD-A VII, 6-9; CD-B XIX, 3-5), and some communities
had both “mothers” and “fathers” (4Q270 7 I, 13-15).
Definition of
fornication included approaching a wife “not ac- cording to the
regulation” (4Q270 7 I, 12-13) and the taking of more than one wife in a
lifetime (CD-A IV,20-V, 1). It is possible that a celibate, male
Essene community may have attracted widowers, who, according to this
regulation, could not remarry.
3.4. Wealth, Livelihood, Social
Justice. Deliberate lifestyle choices resulted from observed social
injustices. *Slavery was rejected, and each served the other as
brothers (Philo, Prob. 79; Josephus, Ant.18.21).
Essenes
avoided the practice of commerce (Philo, Prob. 78), devoting themselves
to manual or agricultural work and craftsmanship (Philo, Prob.76;
Hypoth. 11.8-9; Josephus, Ant. 18.19).
They were known not to
hoard “gold or silver” or acquire large pieces of land, living without
excess of riches but not in poverty (Philo, Prob. 76-77; Josephus, J.W.
2.122). In comparison, Jesus’ teaching on treasures on earth and in
heaven is nuanced eschatalogically (Mt 6:1921; Lk 12:33-34) (see Rich
and Poor).
Essenes vowed to keep themselves from theft and
“unlawful gain” (Josephus, J.W. 2.139-141); priests were not to rob the
poor and the widow or kill the orphan (CD-A VI,16-17; cf. Lk 18:3-5).
Variously,
Essenes enjoyed a community of goods with no private property (Pliny,
Nat. 5.15.73; Josephus, J.W. 2.122; Ant. 18.20; Philo, Prob. 85-86;
Hypoth. 11.4-5, 10-12) or had some pri- vate means (CD-A XIV, 12-16;
Josephus, J.W. 2.124; cf. Acts 4:32-5:11). The “riches” of initiates
into the Yaḥad were to be mingled with the community’s property only
after two years (1QS I, 11-12; VI, 18-23).
Essenes were known to
care for their own sick and elderly (Philo, Prob. 87; Hypoth. 11.13);
the Qumran Essenes were meant to support the poor, needy, alien,
elderly, diseased, captive and fatherless until the messiahs of Aaron
and Israel arrived (CD-A VI,21; XIV, 13-19).
3.5. Fate and
Immortality. “Fate is mistress of all things” (Josephus, Ant.
13.171-173), a predeterministic theology echoed in 1QS III, 15-16.
Josephus attributed a belief in the immortality of soul to the Essenes
(J.W.
2.154-155; Ant. 18.18). Yet, while Josephus reports that the
Pharisees believed in a bodily *resurrection and that the Essenes did
not (J.W. 2.163; cf. Mt 22:23-33), some of the DSS hint that some of the
people of these scrolls did. For example, the anticipated messiah was
expected to cause the dead to live (4Q521 2 II, 12; cf. Jub. 23:30-31;
Hippolytus, Haer. 9.27).
See also Dead Sea Scrolls; Pharisees; Priests and Priesthood; Sadducees.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
G. J. Brooke, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2005); J. H. Charlesworth, “John the Baptizer and the Dead
Sea Scrolls,” in The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls, 3: The Scrolls and
Christian Origins, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (Waco, TX: Baylor University
Press) 1-35; J. J. Collins, Beyond the Qumran Com- munity: The Sectarian
Movement of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010); idem,
“Sec- tarian Communities in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Oxford
Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. T. H. Lim and J. J. Collins
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) 151-72; E. Regev, Sectarianism
in Qumran: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (RelSoc 45; Berlin: de Gruyter,
2007); L. H. Schiffman, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of
Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran
(Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1994); J. E. Taylor, “The
Classical Sources on the Essenes and the Scrolls Communities,” in The
Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. T. H. Lim and J. J. Collins
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) 173-99; J. C. VanderKam, The
Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994); G. Vermes and M.
Goodman, eds., The Essenes According to the Classical Sources (OCT
1; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989).
D. M. Peters
From : Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels - Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, Nicholas Perrin 2013
