Παρασκευή 8 Ιουνίου 2018

Alchemy and the Transgendering of Mercury By M. E. Warlick


Alchemy  and the Transgendering of Mercury M. E. Warlick

Abstract:  Within  late  medieval  alchemical  texts,  Latin  authors  adopted  both classical and Arabic concepts  of physical matter. They assumed  that metals were composed  of two  polarized  substances  - hot,  dry  and  masculine  Philosophic Sulphur,  and  cool,  wet  and  feminine  Philosophic  Mercury  - whose  'Chemical Wedding' within the laboratory produced the Philosophers' Stone. 

As visual illustrations developed  in alchemical  manuscripts and early printed books from the late  fourteenth  century onward, artists  represented these substances  with  a variety of male  and female  characters,  with Philosophic  Mercury  almost always depicted as a woman. At the same time, the planet Mercury, which oversaw the ripening of the  metal  Quicksilver   within  the  earth,  also  played  an  important  role  within alchemical   illustrations.  This   paper  will  examine   how  artists   navigated   this confusion  by examining  gendered  images  of the philosophical  concept  Mercury, the metal Mercury,  and the planet Mercury,  in  light of shifting attitudes towards women in early modern science.

Alchemists  use  the  term  Mercury   in  many  ways,  including  references   to the planet Mercury, to the metal mercury,  to the god Mercury,  and, perhaps most  importantly,  to  the  concept   of 'Philosophic  Mercury'.  Alchemical artists derived  their images  from  astrological,  religious   and  mythological visual  precedents, although some  alchemical   images  were  truly  innovative in their representations of alchemical  substances and laboratory processes. These  broader  visual  traditions influenced alchemical artists,  who  adapted their images  of Mercury   to  the  various  kinds  of Mercury   they  found  in alchemical  texts.  This  paper  will  investigate the  complexity  and contradictions   surrounding   representations   of  Mercury    in   alchemical imagery.  

It will  trace  the  evolution   of different visual  representations  of Mercury  and examine  the ways  in which  alchemical artists negotiated the gender  differences  between   them.  These  observations  are  drawn  from  a larger study of images of women,  gender  and sexuality in alchemical manuscripts  and  early  printed  books.   As  alchemical  imagery  developed from the late fourteenth  through the early seventeenth centuries,  the transformations between  these  differing representations of Mercury  reveal shifting  attitudes  towards   gender both  within  alchemical   philosophy  and beyond.

Alchemical  theories of physical  matter  descend  from the Greeks, who described physical matter as consisting of the four elements of earth, water, air and fire with  their  shared  oppositional  qualities  of cold, wet,  hot and dry. In his Meterologica, Aristotle explained the formation of metals and minerals   within   the   earth   from  'exhalations',   one  vaporous   and  one smoky.1  
Dry exhalations produce infusible minerals and stones that are dug or  quarried.  Aristotle  gave  the  examples  of sulphur,  realgar,  ochre  and ruddle, another red pigment.  He also  placed the composite  ore cinnabar in this  category.  On  the  other  hand,  he  explained  that  fusible  metals  are formed  by  moist  vaporous  exhalations,  providing  the  examples  of iron, gold and copper,  which  are mined.  In the appended  fourth chapter  of the Meterologica,  now ascribed  to pseudo-Avicenna,  the author explained the opposing  qualities of substances by setting up a list of binary oppositions, both active and passive, that determine the ways in which the four qualities of cold or heat, moisture or dryness produce change in substances.2

As Greek theories  migrated  through  the Arab  world,  a shift based  on these  teachings   occurred,   in  which  the  cool,  wet  qualities  of physical substances became  more strongly contrasted  to the hot, dry qualities, and these eventually  polarized  into  the two philosophical  concepts of Mercury and  Sulphur.  In  Arab  alchemical  texts,  the theory  evolved  that  hot,  dry, masculine   Sulphur   and  cool,   moist,   feminine   Mercury   were  the  two component  parts of all metals.3   
Alchemical texts often reiterate that these terms  were not to be confused  with the actual  substances of sulphur and mercury, but rather they were conceptual  properties  of physical  matter. 

In later   alchemical    illustrations,   Philosophic    Sulphur   and  Philosophic Mercury become the two main characters  in alchemical narratives and they appear in a variety of male and female figural representations.
The relationship between  alchemy  and the seven planets visible to the naked  eye  also  stems  from  ancient  origins.4   Each  planet,  including  the Moon and the Sun, rules over the production  of a metal  within the earth in a  continuing   ripening   process   that   evolves   from   lead  to   gold.   The alchemist's task is to learn how to duplicate and quicken these natural processes. Lead is considered to be the least pure of all the metals, and thus it  is  ruled by Saturn,  the slowest  and outermost  visible planet. 

The Moon and the  Sun rule over the most refined  metals  of silver  and gold.  While early texts fluctuate  somewhat in drawing relationships between the other planets  and their metals, Mars was typically  connected  with  iron, Jupiter with  tin,  and  Venus  with  copper.  The  planet  Mercury  first  ruled  over electron,  an alloy  of silver  and gold,  but later  came  to  be linked  to the metal mercury, or quicksilver.

The metal mercury was well known in the ancient world.5  Theophrastus described a simple technique  to obtain mercury by crushing  cinnabar  ore (HgS),  mercuric  sulphide,  a naturally  occurring  combination  of sulphur and mercury. Over time, techniques were developed to produce vermillion, a  synthetic  version  of cinnabar  and  a  brilliant  red  pigment  valued  by painters.6  Laboratory  operations  to separate mercury  from cinnabar  or to produce vermillion  bear interesting parallels to descriptions of alchemical processes. 

While these artisan practices may have contributed to the development  of alchemy's  philosophical  theories,  alchemical  philosophy drew  from  many  other  sources  as well.  Suffice  it to  say  that  the  metal mercury  does  have quite curious properties,  being the  only metal  that  is liquid  at room temperature  and that  has the ability to create  alloys  with most common metals, including silver and gold, but not iron. It was used in ancient times to colour other metals in amalgam gilding, and this may have influenced its reputation as an agent of transformation.

By the time that alchemy returned to the Latin West via twelfth century translations of Arabic texts, references  to Philosophic  Mercury,  the planet Mercury  and the  substance  mercury  were  common.  In  fact,  Philosophic Mercury   had  been   elevated   to  play  a  significant  role   in  alchemical operations. The Latin author Geber, now identified as a Franciscan  monk named  Paul  of Taranto,  postulated  a  'Mercury  alone'  theory,  developed from the Sulphur-Mercury  theory of the Arabs.7  While  accepting  classical form/matter  polarities, several late medieval alchemical texts asserted that masculine   Sulphur  played   a  crucial,  but  relatively  minor   role,  while Mercury contained  all that was necessary  for the successful  completion  of the  work.  
This  view  is  expressed  in  another  text,  the  Liber  secretorum alchimie:

All strength  and operation  rests upon mercury,  it being the mother and matter of all metals, just  as hyle is  the first cause ...  The material  cause comes about through   congealing   as  in  the  first  hyle,  the  mother  of  all  creatures,   as established by the Supreme Artisan.8

This  text  was written  in   I 257 by  Constantine  of  Pisa,  a medical  student who   was   collecting  his  university  lecture  notes  on  the  natural  sciences, including  aspects of alchemical  philosophy and  practice.9  
Two  versions of this    manuscript    have    survived    and    both  contain    illustrations. 10     The Glasgow version was  written  in  Germany in  1361.  
The  Vienna version is  a late  fourteenth  century Flemish  adaptation  of Constantine's  text entitled, The Secrets of My Lady Alchemy.

Illustrations   in    early    alchemical   manuscripts    were   rare    with   the exception   of  vessels  and   pointy  fingers  in   the  margins.  The   Glasgow manuscript   contains  relatively   simple  cosmological   diagrams  that  are largely  unfinished. The  Vienna manuscript  embellished its  diagrams with figural  elements,  and  thus became  the  first alchemical  manuscripts  to  do so.  Throughout  the   text,   Constantine   explains   the   relationship  between theological,  cosmological  and  'alchemical  principles.  The  more  elaborate illustrations  in  the  Vienna manuscript  represent the  planets, their metals, the  zodiac, and  the  creation  of heaven and  earth,   drawing on  Genesis. In two   panels   (Fig.  1 ),  overlapping   circles  contain   personifications  of the planets  in   their  medieval   appearances,  inscribed  with  the  names   of  the planets and  the  metals  they  rule.11   

At the  top  left,  the  hand  of God  begins an    unfolding   cycle    of   creation.    Below    his    hand     is    a    crowned personification  of the   cosmos,  followed  by  the   planets  Saturn,   Jupiter, Mars   and  the  Sun.  The   following folio  continues  with  Venus,  Mercury, Luna,    the    Earth,   and    the    animals   of   the    air,   land   and    sea.    
The personifications of Jupiter and  Venus are  both regal,  although their typical metals  are  reversed here, with Jupiter  ruling copper and  Venus   ruling tin.
Saturn  is  a three-headed personification  of Time  ruling lead,  while Mars  is a soldier,  ruling iron.


Fig. 1.  Creation  of the planets,  metals  and animals,  Constantine of Pisa,  The Book of the  Secrets of Alchemy,  ca.  1380,  paper;  ONB  Vienna:  Cod.  2372, fols. 46v, 47r; reproduced by kind  permission of the Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek,  Vienna.

The  next   panel  represents the  planet Mercury  as  a  bishop  in  the  second circle from  the  top  (Fig.  1,  right).  Jean  Seznec charted the  persistence of astrological  personifications throughout  the  Middle  Ages,   demonstrating that  they   never  really  disappeared during  the  Christian  era,  but that  their appearances  certainly  changed  from Greco-Roman  representations.12  
The curious   representation   of  Mercury   as  a  bishop   extends back  to  the Babylonian   god  Nebo,  who  was  a scholar.  During  a transitional  period when  astrological  manuscripts  were  returning  to  the  Latin  west,  artists often had only written  descriptions  of classical  gods and goddesses rather than  actual  visual  reputations.  

In  some  cases,  Arabic  artists  had adapted western  classical deities to representations of their own gods, or they had given them local attributes,  as where Hercules wields a scimitar rather than a club. 13   Thus  medieval  artists  merged  Middle  Eastern  representations  of the scholarly scribe god Nebo into a western clerical scholar surrounded by books,  and  then  into  a bishop.  An  alchemical  manuscript  at Cambridge depicts the planet Mercury as a bishop marrying the masculine  Sun and the feminine  Moon.14   

The planet's  proximity  in  the sky to the Sun may have sparked Mercury's representation  as an intermediary between them.   Later there would be many alchemical  representations of the so-called  'Chemical Wedding'  of the Sun and Moon, but the appearance  of the planet Mercury as  a  bishop  is  an  early  construct  that  would  soon  disappear.  Planetary influence   over   the  generation  of  metals   within   the   earth   and   over laboratory processes  will continue  in alchemical texts  long into the early modern period.

In the early fifteenth century, two new alchemical manuscripts appeared with abundant allegorical  imagery.15  Both would serve as models for much of the  alchemical  imagery  that  developed  in  later manuscripts  and  early printed books. A German Franciscan  monk named Ulmannus produced the Buch der Heiligen  Dreifaltigkeit  (Book  of the Holy  Trinity)  while he was attending  the  Council  of Constance,  1414-1418.  
Written  in the  midst of strong religious  debate  and controversy,  this manuscript weaves  together alchemical  theory   and  practical  laboratory  recipes  within  a  matrix  of religious  and political  allusions,  delivered with the fervour born of a belief in the imminent threat of the Antichrist.

Within  the  text,  correspondences   are  drawn  between  the  metals,  the planets, virtues and vices.16   The point is  often made that Christ  and Mary are unified, as Sulphur and Mercury are joined together in  physical  matter. At the  end  of the  manuscript,  the  Crowning  of Mary  by  the  Trinity  of Father,   Son   and  Holy   Spirit   represents   the   feminine   perfection   of Philosophic Mercury. Christ's crucifixion and resurrection represents masculine perfection and the production of gold.

The other early fifteenth century manuscript is the Aurora  Consurgens (Rising Dawn),  of which  the oldest  version  is  in Zurich.  Within the text, Sulphur and Mercury  are presented  as personifications  of the Sun and the Moon  in  a variety  of  interactions.  In  one illustration,  the  male  Sun  is  a knight jousting  with  his feminine opponent,  the female Moon.17  

They ride on  a  Lion   and  a  Griffin,  symbols  of  masculine  fixity  and  feminine volatility.  Their shields  contain  small  symbols  of their opponents - he has the Moon, she has the Sun - as both Sulphur and Mercury were thought to each contain a small  part of each other's essence.  
In another  illumination from  the  same  manuscript  the  two  characters  tie  the  legs  of a  dragon, representing the primal matter, the base material from which the two substances  are  purified  into  silver  and gold.  Primal  matter  must  first be destroyed,  as the volatility  of Mercury  is  fixed,  before  further  operations can continue.  This manuscript also  contains  sexually  explicit scenes  of the couple's  sexual  union, drawing on the Song of Songs, and its  romantic tale of a  lover  and  his beloved,  interpreted  here  as an  allegory  of chemical fusion in the laboratory.

Both manuscripts, the Book of the Holy Trinity and Rising Dawn, reflect philosophical  and religious ideas of late  medieval  alchemical  texts.  Both contain many  prominent  images  of women,  influenced  by the  'Mercury alone'  theory. The late  Gothic period  saw the celebration of the cult of the Virgin Mary  in abundant  religious  imagery. 
The alchemical  emphasis  on feminine  Mercury  is  thus  expressed  in  a variety  of religious  images  of women within these early manuscripts, including the Virgin Mary, Eve, a female serpent and the Black Bride of the Song of Songs,  in addition to the Moon.  Both manuscripts also  contain  images  of the alchemical  androgyne, a  half-male/half-female  figural  symbol  of the  Philosophers'  Stone,  the child of the union of Sulphur and Mercury,  and this dual  figure will prove to be one of the most enduring alchemical  symbols.

Later  copies  and  adaptations of both  manuscripts  were  produced   into the  mid-sixteenth  century.   Some  developed the  romance   of Sulphur  and Mercury  even  further,  including  the Rosarium philosophorum  and Donum Dei series.18   Artists adapted  images  from  the Book of the Holy  Trinity  and the  Rising Dawn   in  these  newer   illustrations.  ln  one  image,  a  woman, identified  as   'Philosophic  Mercury',  stands   on  two  fountains   flowing beneath   her  feet.  In  the  Glasgow version  the  fountains   are  labelled  with glyphs  for the Sun/gold and the Moon/silver (Fig. 2).19

She   is  nude   to   represent  her   purity.   Her   long   loose  golden   hair represents  her  virginity,  conveying a  more  secular  representation  of the virgin mother  of the Philosophers'  Stone.  She holds a chalice  of healing  in her left hand  and an encircling serpent in her right, objects  held by earlier androgynous  figures  in  the  Book of the  Holy  Trinity.  This  image  again reinforces the  late medieval   idea of the  'Mercury  alone'  theory, in which feminine Mercury   contains all that  is necessary for the  completion of the work.
With the  advent  of printing,  several  compilations of earlier  alchemical texts  appeared, at first without illustrations.   In 1550,  an illustrated  version of the Rosarium Philosophorum was  printed  with  an illustrated  title  page and a narrative  series  of twenty woodcuts.  The woodcuts  are accompanied by   a   German    poem,    'Sol    und   Luna,'   whose    author   has   not   been identified."  

The  artist  adapted  again  images  from  the  Book of the  Holy Trinity  and  the  Rising Dawn   into  this  new  series  that  begins  with  the meeting,   romance   and  sexual  union  of the  Sun  King  and  Moon  Queen. The two  figures  then  fuse  into a half-male/half-female androgyne  within a sarcophagus.    Evaporation  and    condensation    within   the    vessel    are represented by a small  male  figure  rising  to the top  and  returning  after a rain  shower.  The  perfection of the  feminine  is  achieved  half way  through the  series,  and  is  represented  by  an  androgyne  standing  on  a  crescent Moon,  to  indicate  the  production  of silver  (Fig.  3).  

A  second  and  more volatile  conjunction follows,  this time with a small  female  figure  rising and descending  after  the  rain.  At the  end  of  the  series,  the  royal  androgyne stands triumphantly over a three-headed serpent, beside  a tree with thirteen heads  of the  Sun.  The  final  images  of the  Crowning  of Mary  and  the Resurrection   of  Christ   indicate  the  perfection   of  both  Mercury    and Sulphur.


Fig.  2.  Philosophic  Mercury,  Spruch  der  Philosophien  (Rosarium Philosophorum  series), German,  late sixteenth century,  paper; University of Glasgow  Library,  Sp.  Coll. Ferguson  Ms. 6, Fol.  164v; reproduced  by kind permission of the Special  Collections Department of the University of Glasgow Library, Glasgow.

Within  this series, the image of the androgyne on the Moon  (Fig. 3) plays a similar role to the representation of 'Philosophic Mercury'  (Fig. 2).


Fig. 3. Alchemical Androgyne, De alchimia opuscula, Part II: Rosarium Philosophorum,   Frankfurt:   Cyriacus  Jacob,   1550,  woodcut;  University  of Glasgow  Library,  Sp. Coll.  Ferguson  Al-y.18,  fig.  10;  reproduced  by kind permission  of the Special  Collections Department of the University of Glasgow Library, Glasgow.

It  would   be  inaccurate  to  say  that   such  an  evolution  of the  gendered imagery is strictly chronological, especially  since  the Glasgow  drawing of female  'Philosophic Mercury'  was created  later than the woodcut,  and both are based on earlier  models.  There  are similarities in the objects  held  in the hands  while  the wings  on the  fountains  of the  Sun and the  Moon  are now attached   to  the   androgyne.    Although  the  androgyne  is  both  male   and female, its text  indicates the  perfection of the  feminine  has been  achieved through  an imperial birth (an Empress).  The Moon  is emphasized by a tree containing thirteen  faces  of the moon,  in addition to the crescent moon  on which the androgyne stands.
By  the  beginning   of  the   seventeenth   century,   the  Renaissance   had inspired  new transformations  of the alchemical Mercury,  depicted as a god in  his  Greco-Roman  attire  with  winged   hat  and  heels,   and  a  caduceus entwined  with two serpents (Fig. 4).


Fig.   4.   Mercury    and   the   Androgyne,    Daniel    Stolcius,    Chymisches Lustgartlein, Frankfurt: Lucas Jennis,  1624, engraving  by Baltazar  Schwan; University of Glasgow Library, Sp.  Coll. SM 1000, fig. LXIX; reproduced by kind  permission  of the  Special  Collections  Department of the  University of Glasgow Library, Glasgow.

Several  factors influenced  the return and appearance  of this Mercury. One was   the   rise   in   the  reputation   of  the  Egyptian   philosopher   Hermes Trismegistus,  a  character  whose  reputation  had  evolved  throughout  the Middle  Ages."  Hermes'  fame  as  an  ancient  philosopher  ranked  him  in some circles  even  higher  than  Plato and  Aristotle.   His role as the most important Hermetic  philosopher  secured his position as the founding father of alchemy.  In  1488,  soon  after the appearance  of Ficino's  printed  version of the Corpus Hermeticum, an image of Hermes Trismegistus,  attributed to Giovanni  di  Stefano,  was  inserted into the mosaic pavement  of the Siena Cathedral.r' In alchemical texts, the ancient philosopher Hermes was often merged with the Greek god Hermes, and this would  influence the role that the god Hermes/Mercury  would begin to assume in alchemical  imagery.

The second important person to shift the spotlight towards the classical god Mercury was the irascible Doctor Paracelsus, who lived in the early sixteenth century. His theories on alchemical medicine, or iatrochemisty, were especially influential. Paracelsus postulated a number of revisions to prevailing alchemical theory, but for the purpose of this paper, the most important was his shift from the duality of the Mercury-Sulphur theory to one that included Salt as a third essential component of physical matter. 

This trinity was not entirely new to alchemy as it paralleled other Trinitarian views, such as body, soul and spirit. 23 However, because of the emphasis that Paracelsus placed on three, rather than two, essential parts of primal matter, Salt became an equal partner to continuing representations of Philosophic Sulphur and Philosophic Mercury. For Paracelsus, Salt is the body or the physicality of matter, the ash left after a substance had been burned, Mercury was the volatile spirit of matter or escaping gases, and Sulphur became its soul, the essence that is collected.

The male god Mercury thus comes to represent Salt, the physical body that binds together male Sulphur and female Mercury. His caduceus encapsulates this notion, with its two serpents entwined on a single staff (Fig.  4).  This  engraving  appeared  first  in   J.  D.  Mylius's  Philosophia Reformata  of  1622,  one of several  images  in  this  text containing  the god Mercury,  now fully attired  in  his classical  garb. 24
He represents  not onlyTrismegistus,  a  character  whose  reputation  had  evolved  throughout  the Middle  Ages."  Hermes'  fame  as  an  ancient  philosopher  ranked  him  in some circles  even  higher  than  Plato and  Aristotle.   His role as the most important Hermetic  philosopher  secured his position as the founding father of alchemy.  

In  1488,  soon  after the appearance  of Ficino's  printed  version of the Corpus Hermeticum, an image of Hermes Trismegistus,  attributed to Giovanni  di  Stefano,  was  inserted into the mosaic pavement  of the Siena Cathedral.r' In alchemical texts, the ancient philosopher Hermes was often merged with the Greek god Hermes, and this would  influence the role that the god Hermes/Mercury  would begin to assume in alchemical  imagery.

The second  important  person to shift the spotlight towards the classical the Hermetic wisdom that is necessary for completing the work, but he also functions as a guardian watching over the alchemical  androgyne resting in the  garden.  Elsewhere  in Mylius's book,  the  seven  ancient planets  with their traditional  classical  attributes  are placed  within  a cavern to oversee the creation of their metals within the womb of the earth. Daniel Stolcius reprinted  many  of  these  illustrations  in  his  Chymisches  Lustgartlein  of 1624.  The  rising  importance  of  Hermes  Trismegistus  and  of  Paracelsus within alchemical  philosophy  is  suggested by the inclusion of both men on
Stolcius's title page.

One   the   most   important   alchemical   texts   published   in   the  early seventeenth  century  was  Michael  Maier's  Atalanta  Fugiens,  which  also god Mercury.  Maier was well versed in alchemical philosophy. He wrote several texts that interpreted ancient myths and legends 26 as alchemical allegories. The publisher J. T. De Bry probably engraved the images, although they have also been attributed to Mattaeus Merian. Whoever the artist, he was well versed in the artistic currents of the day, and had access to imagery from earlier alchemical manuscripts, upon which many newer illustrations were based. 

Mythological and gendered transformations took place within this Renaissance humanist environment, often inspired by Ovid's The struggle described above between the knightly Sun, the feminine Moon and the Dragon in the Aurora Consurgens, is transformed in Emblem XXV of Atalanta Fugiens into a mythological Metamorphosis. scene, in which 27 Apollo (Phoebus), god of the Sun, and Diana (Cynthia), goddess of the Moon, use the club of Hercules to destroy the dragon. In the distance, 24 the celestial brother and sister are depicted in their mythic roles as archers.  In Emblem  XXXVIII, the winged  god Hermes  is  represented in a passionate embrace with the goddess  Aphrodite (Fig.  5).



Fig.   5.  Emblem   XXXVIII.   Hermes/Mercury,  Aphrodite,   Eros,   and  the Hermaphrodite,  Michael  Maier, Atalanta  Fugiens, Oppenheim:  J. T. De Bry, 1618,  engraving;  University  of  Glasgow  Library,  Sp  Coll  Ferg  Euing  Bd 16.g-6,  p.  161;  reproduced   by  kind  permission   of  the  Special  Collections Department ofthe University of Glasgow Library, Glasgow.

According to the Ovidian  myth their child  was  a boy, Hermaphroditus, who  later merged  with the  nymph  Salmacis  in a pool,  to become  a single figure   of  both  sexes,   the  Hermaphrodite.   In  the  motto   of  this   image, Hermes/Mercury becomes  the Father  of the  androgynous child  and AphroditeNenus  its  mother,  as the alchemical  allegory  is  retold,  this time as a classical  myth.28

Thus   is  happens   that   feminine   Philosophic  Mercury,  mother  of the alchemical androgyne and the Philosopher's  Stone,  becomes  the masculine god Mercury,  father  of the Hermaphrodite. As feminine  Mercury  becomes masculine  Mercury,  the wider  context  of the increasing  masculinization  of early modern  science  seems  to be a factor  influencing these  changes  within alchemical   imagery.  
More   visual   examples   can  be  found,   but  it  seems sufficient  here  to  propose   that  gender   is  a most  interesting  filter to  use when  examining  the  evolution  of alchemical  imagery.  
Alchemy  was  a science   of  transformation,   and   its  illustrations   demonstrate  just   how mercurial  those transformations could  be.

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